 |
| |
|
|
Bibliography
Archaic Jade Ornaments of the Hongshan (紅山文化) and Pre-Hongshan (兴隆洼 / 赵宝沟) cultures
Short, essential bibliography about Hongshan and Neolithic culture sites in Central and Far East Asia.
Display order: arbitrary
- The Origin of Jades in East Asia
Jades of the Xinglongwa Culture
玉器起源探索 : 興隆窪文化玉器研究及圖錄 / 楊虎, 劉國祥, 鄧聰
Author: Yang Hu, Liu Guoxiang, Tang Chung
330 pp., illustrations, text in Chinese and English.
ISBN: 9628530356, ISBN: 9789628530359
Chinese University of Hongkong 2007
Preview on Google Books >>
- HONGSHAN YU QI
Jades of Hongshan Culture
紅山玉器
335 pp., colour plates throughout, text English/Chinese, illustrations.
ISBN: 9572875965, ISBN: 9789572875964
Aurora Art Museum Taiwan, Taipei 2007
- Banjijian He Zhongyou Xianqin Shiqi Yizhi
Pre-Qin Stage Archaeological Sites Along the Middle Banzhijian River
中国社会科学院考古研究所
Chifeng Archaeological Expdition of the Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
334 pp., illustrations, text in Chinese and English summary, map, board, Beijing, 2002.
This monograph reports results of archaeological survey undertaken at the Middle Banzhijian River between 1996 and 2000 by the Chifeng archaeological expedition.
- Chifeng archaeological expedition
内蒙古东部 (赤峰) 区域考古调查阶段性报告
Neimenggu Dongbu (Chifeng) Quyu Kaogu Diaocha Jiaduanxing Baogao
Regional Archaeology in Eastern Inner Mongolia: A Methodological Exploration
赤峰中美联合考古研究项目
The Chifeng International Collaborative Archaeological Research Project
219 pp., 8 color maps plus folio map, text in Chinese and English, boards, Beijing, 2003.
Regional archaeology in Eastern Inner Mongolia: A Methodological Exploration represents an achievement in regional archaeology in southern Inner Mongolia. This volume follows the publication of Pre-Qin stage archaeological sites along the Middle Banzhijian River, and including discussion of field methodology and a preliminary summary of field results of the Chifeng International Collaborative Archaeological Research Project during 1999-2002.
- 中國出土玉器全集(15 Volumes)
Zhongguo Chutu Yuqi Quanji (15 Volumes)
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China (15 Volumes)
古方
Gu Fang Editor
approx. 3500 pp., fully illustrated in color, text in Chinese and English, illustrated boards, slipcase, Beijing, 2005.
This series is a comprehensive study of Chinese Jades found in China, organized by region.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China - Vol. 1 - 15
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 1
For thousands of years, our predecessors in the area of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei lived a rich life on fertile land, worked hard, and created a brilliant ancient civilization, leaving posterity with a rich and multi-faceted cultural heritage. One of the most brilliant stars of this cultural heritage is the ancient art of working jade.
1. Beijing Area
Archaeological data of Shang and Zhou eras include representative jades from a Shang tomb at Liujianhe in Pinggu and from Western Zhou tombs with in the Stage Yan Cemetery.
During the 1960’s, excavations began at State Yan Cemetery of Western Zhou period, and subsequent seasons of excavation continued to reveal jades, including ritual insignia and ornaments as the primary objects. Few jades have been unearthed in the Beijing area from the Spring and Autumn through Warring Stages periods. With the Han, a certain number of jades are known from burials at Dabaotai and Laoshan. Few jades are known from excavations in the Beijing area representing Wei-Jin through Sui-Tang times. The only jade discovered was a set of jade inscribed tablets, in 1980 from a Tang tomb at Wangzuoxiang, fengtai. Beijing proper was under minority control during the Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties, In 1974, a Jin stone chamber burial with a rich number of jades was unearthed at Changgouyu coalmine in Fangshan.
In 1272, the 9th year of the Zhiyuan reign period under Emperor Kublai, when Yanjing was first occupied by the Mongolians as the capital, a Jade Bureau was also created for purposes of designing and crafting royal house ritual pendants and ornamental jades. An outstanding example of the royal jades is the urn(weng) known as “ Dushan Dayuhai ”. Representing the Ming Dynasty are 51 jades inlaid with gold, unearthed from burials of Ming Emperor Wanli and his two empresses Xiaojuan and Xiaojing. Those representing the Qing ear include a jade vase, a cup and papilionaceous flower-shaped ornament from a burial at Xiaoxitian in the western suburbs of Beijing. It can be said that the imperial workshops of Qing period reached a peak in the evolution of jade-working and left to posterity and unprecedented rich and varied art.
2. Tianjin Area
Tianjin City, neighboring the Bohai and northeast of the Huabei plain, although historically and culturally rich with remains, excavated jades are few. The earliest jades unearthed, are those in the form of slit rings and spoons, discovered at the Neolithic site of Niudaokou, Baodi County.
3. Heibei Area
A rich number of jades has been unearthed from sites in Hebei datin to the Neolithic period. The earliest jades from this area, including slit rings, ornaments and stone animals, were excavated in 2003 at Beifudi in Yixian County, and date approximately 8,000 years ago. In 1995, Longshan Culture jades, including a spade, a tablet(gui) shaped implement, jade and stone cong (tube) were excavated at Dachengshan, Tanshan. Shang and Zhou jades from Hebei, although small in number, are best represented by those from the Shang site of Taixi in Gaocheng, the Shang burial at Zhaoyao, Wu’an, and the Western Zhou tombs at Xizhuangcun in Yuanshi, Nanxiaowang and Gezhuang in Xingtai.
The enfiefments (zhuhou) of Spring and Autumn, and Warring States periods in Hebei include Yan, Zhao and Zhongshan. In recent years, despite several seasons of excavation at Xiaodu of Yan in Yixian County, with rich finds, few jades have been discovered. Only a small number of jades survive from State Zhao burials, due to heavy looting. In the early 1950’s, an important Warring States tomb was excavated from a cemetery at Baijiacun in Handan State. Zhoungshan was allegedly “ five-hundred li ” in size and equipped with “one thousand” warring chariots and a particular power besides the commonly known seven states. In 1974, Zhoungshan royal and accompanying burials were discovered at Pingshan, and had a profound impact. Although the burials had earlier been ransacked and burned, more than one thousand jades were still intact.
Sites with royal jades from Han Dynasty burials in Hebei are comparatively wealthy and include the royal Western Han burial of Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan; the Western Han burial of Liu Xiu, Prince Huai of Zhongshan; and Eastern Han burials of Liu Yan, Prince Jian of Zhongshan and Liu Chang, Prince Mu of Zhongshan.
In 1968, the tombs of Liu Sheng and his wife were discovered at Lingshan, Mancheng County in Baoding. The discovery is major archeological find since the tombs are large and accompanying burials items are vast in number and well preserved. In 1973, jades, including bi, huan, huang, xi, sword fittings and pendant of ornaments, in addition to 1,203 jade plates, about 2,567 grams gold used to create the gold threaded jade shroud were unearthed from the tomb of Prince Huai, called Liu Xiu, at Bajiaolangcun in Dingxian County. In 1959, the Eastern Han tomb of Liu Yan was cleared at Beizhuang in Dingxian County. Several beautiful were discovered despite looting and considerable ransacking at an earlier date. In 1969, jades unearthed from Tomb No.43 of Eastern Han date(recognized as belonging to Liu Chang, the Prince Mu of Zhongshan) at Beilingtoucun, south of the Dingxian County include jade screens, bi, thumb ring-shaped pendants, dancing figurine pendants and sword fittings. The Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern Dynastic periods were fraught by wars. Individual jade pendants and bead ornaments have been found in Hebei and most are polished types without decoration. After the fall of the Tang, jade discoveries are relatively few. Richer finds are from the Song and after. Upper class jades of Qing Dynasty are represented in several excavations in Hebi.
In summary, jades from the areas of Hebei, Tianjin and Beijing, whether slit rings or ornaments from the 8,000 year old site of Beifudi, Yixian; ritual and insignia jades from three dynasties; sets of pendants of Spring and Autumn through Warring States periods; ornaments of Han-Tang period; or numerous everyday types of Ming and Qing dynasties, the jades are rich and varied, eye-pleasing and precious, and reflect non only jade-working in these areas but at the same time represent on page in the glorious development of Chinese jade-working.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 2
The northeast area of China, geographically vast and culturally complex, is one of the most pivotal areas for the origin and development of jade-working in China. Based on current archaeological data, some 200 excavated prehistoric sites are known. Field archaeology in the western part of Liaoning and southeastern part of Inner Mongolia provide abundant data for solidifying the chronology and relationship between sites of Neolithic through early Bronze Age date. The northeast served as the springboard for the evolution of grassland and forest cultures using jade during the historic periods. Based on archaeological data, the bulk of jades representing a peak in artistic achievement belong to two dynasties, the Liao and Jin. Jades dating to Yuan, Ming and Qing Periods are small in number and undergo a marked marginalization.
1. Area of Inner Mongolia
Jades from the area of Inner Mongolia are concentrated in the southeast. Jades of Neolithic date chronologically fall into three phases, the first of which is identified with the type-sites, Xinglongwa and Zhaobaogou Cultures, dating to ca. 6000-4500 BCE. The over 60 jades discovered include slit rings, tubes, ladle shapes, curved flat shapes, fu (utilitarian axe), adzes, chisel and cicadas. The second phase of Neolithic jade-working in the northeast in represented by the Hongshan Culture and dates to 4500-3000 BCE. Early and Middle Period Hongshan jades are small in number by comparison to the numerous types of the Late Period.
The third phase, the Late Period of the Hongshan Culture, dating ca. 3000-2500 BCE is represented by jades from Xiaoheyan and the Xiajiadiaciaceng Cultures. Only a few jades survive from the Xiaoheyan Culture. Jades from the southeastern part of Inner Mongolia dating to the Liao Dynasty are concentrated in distribution. A small number of Early Period Liao jades have been unearthed from the Yelu Yuzhi tomb.
2. Area of Liaoning
Prehistoric cultures of western, middle and eastern Liaoning are culturally distinctive. Western Liaoning and southeastern Inner Mongolian cultures are homogenous, and represent the upper valley area of the Liao River. Late Period Hongshan jades, totaling approximately 100, are concentrated in western Liaoning. The most significant sites include Dongshanzui in Kazuo County; Hutougou in Fuxin County, and Niuheliang in the intersecting Jianping and Lingyuan Counties. Neolithic jades from eastern and central Liaoning are divisible into three stages of development. The first is represented by jades of the Lower Layer of Xinle Culture and Lower Layer of Xiaozhushan Culture, dating to 5500-4000 BCE. The second stage is represented by the type-sites, Middle Layer of Xiaozhushan Culture and Period 1 of Santang Culture. The third stage is represented by jades from stone pile tombs at Sipingshan, dating to 2500-2000 BCE. Historic period jades in type include small cups and sword pommel fittings, as represented at the tomb belonging to Feng Sufu the Northern Yan of the Sixteen Kingdoms Period in Xiguanyingzi. Form and style differ from that of the Central Plain yet jades reflect the transitional character of Sui to Tang Periods. A rather large number of jades have been discovered in Liaoning of Liao Dynastic date.
3. Area of Jilin
The most important areas of prehistoric jade finds in Jilin province include the Zhaoer and Huoling River valley in the west, the Di’ersonghuan River valley in the central part, and Mudan, Tumen and Yalu River valleys in the eastern part. Some 20 sites have been excavated and some 50 jades discovered.
4. Area of Heilonjiang
Prehistoric jades from Heilongjiang are primarily distributed in the northern part in a wide open area outside Daxing’anling and Xiaoxing’anling. Some 180 jades have been found at close to 30 sites. Numerous jades have been unearthed from Jin Dynasty sites and belong to the heyday of Jurchen tribe and culture.
In summary, jades development in the northeast, created out of a series of interrelated areas over an extensive ear, during the Neolithic and historic periods achieved glorious results. Archaeological discoveries continue to increase on a daily basis and promise to provide further scientific data to understand and assess what is a profound and productive jade center in early and historic China.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 3
Shanxi, encompassing the middle valley of the Yellow River, occupies the area where the Central Plains joins with grasslands. Jinnan (southern Shanxi), one of the various areas where the Huaxia Culture originated, played an important role in 5000 years of Chinese history. Presently, no jades have been discovered in association with the earliest Yangshao or even earlier Zaoyuan Culture. A cultural peak in the late phase of the Yangshao, represented by the second stage of Miaodigou Culture, is represented by a large number of sites discovered in the southern range of the Zhongtiao Mountains on the northern shore of the Yellow River, in the Su River valley in Yuncheng Basin, in the lower valley of the Fen River in the Linfen Basin, and in the area of central Shanxi, but only the cemetery burials at Qingliangsi ① in Ruichen and at Xiajin ② in Longshan period sites, as represented by remains of the Taosi ③ Culture.
① Very recently a new large-scale Neolithic cemetery was discovered at Qingliangsi in Ruicheng. Three-hundred different status tombs belonging to the late of the second stage of Miaodigou Culture were unearthed and are close in type with early period remains at Taosi in the Linfen Basin. ② Xiajin cemetery, located in the center of the Linfen Basin, compares well with early remains of Taosi, dating to ca.2500 BC. ③ The largest scale remains in the middle Yellow River valley are at Taosi. Rich and varied, these finds define the site as a Cultural typed-site dating to ca.2600-2000BC. The Taosi Culture represents a major branch of the Longshan Culture that peaked and developed in the Central Plains. Most jades come from tombs and 200 of 1309 excavated tombs had jade and stone objects. Over 800 different jade and stone types include primitive yue, tablet(gui), bi and cong.
During the Xia and Shang periods, cultural finds continue to appear, with numerous Xia Culture remains but with few jades. Two state sites (fangguo) of late Shang period at Jingjie and Fushanqiao were excavated in 1985 and 2003 and a group of exquisite jades were discovered.
During the Western Zhou period, many enfeoffments and states were located in Shanxi, and many remains and cemeteries have been excavated.
The jades unearthed from the cemeteries of Marquis of State Jin at Qucun are numerous and varied, ranging from ritual to pendant and ornament types, and to utilitarian and burial implements.
In 1980, Shanxi Provincial Committee of Cultural Relics excavated Western Zhou period tombs at Yongninpu, Hongtong County, revealing a batch of jades comparable in style to those of Jin Marquis. Shapes include ge, gui, huang, bi, tubes and slit rings, which are divisible into ritual, burial, pendant, and bauble type groups.
From 2001 to June of 2005, a group of Western Zhou period burials representing Stage Peng rulers were unearthed at Hengshui, Jiangxian County. The pendants consisted of jade huang sets, bone plaques and agate chain ornaments, etc. all of which are well preserved, high in quality and beautifully worked.
A comparatively large number of jades were uncovered from late State Jin burials in Shanxi, the Shangguo cemetery in Wenxi County, Chengcun cemetery in Linyi County, Xintian remains in Houma, and in southeast Shanxi, the cemetery at Fenshuiling, Changzhi, the cemetery of Changzi, the cemetery of Luhe, Lucheng, and in Taiyuan area the cemetery of Jinshengcun. Jades of Han period and afterward in Shanxi are rarer and only sporadically found.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 4
Shangdong is one of the earliest areas for field archaeology and for the discovery of excavated jades. In 1936, Longshan culture jades were unearthed at Liangchengzhe, Rizhao. In subsequent seasons more jades, in addition to the raw material and partially worded jades were excavated.
At present, the earliest known jades are those of the Dawenkou Culture, first excavated at the site of Tai’an in 1959. Dawenkou jade types include hairpins, huang, bracelets, and hanging ornaments. At Sanlihe jade types include owl-shaped objects, disks with notches, huan, saddle-shaped ornaments and pendants.
In terms of variety and quality Longshan Culture jades show advances beyond those achieved during the Dawenkou Culture. The latter jades were either ornamental or ritual in function. The ritual types take mostly standardized yet simple shapes. The most jades are the crown-shaped ornament, yue, zhang, cong, disk with notches and knife.
The most important sites in Shandong with jades of the Shang and Zhou periods come from Subutun in Yidu, Liutaizi in Jiyang and Qianzhangda in Tengzhou.
Although jades appear at numerous sites, when they appear they are concentrated, as represented, for example, by the jades unearthed from the large cruciform tomb at Subutun, Yidu. The majority of precious stones, totaling over 900 from six tombs at the early Western Zhou, are agate and turquoise beads. Types belong to ritual, ornamental, tool, weapon and miscellaneous categories. The richest group of jades of Shang-Zhou periods in Shandong derives from tombs at Qianzhangda, Tengzhou. Representing a peak in jade-working during this period the jades are exquisite in design, simple yet descriptive with an aesthetic emphasis.
The high quality of jade-working in Shandong is not only comparable to that of the Central Plains but is comparable in technique. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the Shandong area was closely allied with the Central Plains, although site finds with jades are few and scattered. It is difficult to distinguish late Western Zhou and early Spring and Autumn styles, yet by the middle and late phase of the Spring and Autumn period, stylistic changes are marked .Jades representing State Qi finds are few in number. The major Warring Stages sites with jades in Shandong represented by Tomb No. 1 at Langshan, Zhangqiu and tombs at Shangwangcun, Linzi.
Iron, which was in widespread use by the Eastern Zhou period stimulated a revolution in the use of the tuo wheel used to cut and polish jades, giving rise to new heights in jade-working. The two phases of the Eastern Zhou period represent an unequalled height and position in the history of China’s jade-working tradition.
The art of openwork decoration continues to be even more popular during the Western through Eastern Han periods than during the Eastern Zhou. Carving techniques and incised liner decoration seek clarity and refinement in expression. In summary, the two Han periods in Shandong witness a continued height in jade working, a richness in numbers and types of jades, despite the lack of extant aristocratic tombs with jades.
After the Han period, sites in Shandong with jades decrease. By the Three Kingdoms, two Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasty, jades almost completely disappear from the record. Little change appears during the Song and Yuan periods, and at present unearthed artifacts including nine pieces of agate from two Song tombs at Diaoyushan, Jiaxiang.
The Ming Dynasty is represented by the tomb of Zhu Tan, the Prince of Lu, jades including belts, pendants, gui, a crystal deer, a dark green jade brush holder and etc. Carving techniques include bas-relief, openwork and carving in the round in used to create human figurines and floral imagery. The Ming style is profound and moving in representing anew another degree of refinement in the art of working jade.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 5
In 1923, a small number of jade slit ring types and other piece were discovered in a tomb, primarily filled with bronze vessels, at Lijialou in Xinzheng, Henan. Not only is this archaeological find significant but it is the earliest systematically excavated site with jades in Henan province. During the 1950’s a large number of jades were discovered at various other sites and tombs. Although jades have been unearthed from tombs of Neolithic through Qing periods, the most abundant and significant in terms of historical development belong to the Shang and Zhou periods.
During the Neolithic through Qing Period, the Central Plains lacked any thriving jade-working practice that typified southern cultures, such as Liangzhu and Shijianhe, and northern culture of Hongshan.
The Yangshao Culture includes a couple of major types in Henan, such as Miaodiguo, Dahecun, Yancun, Hougan, Dasikongcun and Xiawangang. At this time jade-working increases, as is evident in the finds of jade knives, huang(arc-shaped pendant), and huan(ring) from Dahecun. Small-scale ornaments, mostly huan and huang, are also known elsewhere during the Yangshao period. At Nanyang, where the Central Plains and southern cultures meet in Henan, the Yangshao Culture thrives and absorbs influences of the Qujialing Culture.
The period during which jade-working flourished in Henan occurs during the three dynasties of Xia, Shang and Zhou. The Erlitou Cultuure dates between the Henan Longshan and Zhengzhou Erligang Cultures, and thus fits neatly with historical and literary references that identify this phase with the Xia dynasty.
The Shang period in Henan represents a flourishing era for jade-working, as represented by finds form large-scale capital sites, including Shang City at Yanshi and Shang City ant Zhengzhou and capital city at Yinxu. The handle-shaped objects, ge, and hairpin appear during the Lower Erligang stage and BCEome more numerous during the Upper stage. From 1300B.C. when, historically, Pan Geng moved the Shang capital to Yin and for the next over 250 years following, Anyang served as the Late Shang capital. The material worked at Yinxu is primarily nephrite from Hetain in Xinjina; Dushan in Henan, and Xiuyan in Liaoning. Techniques of working include incision, shallow relief, carving in the round, and openwork. Types of jade include those inherited from early Shang, such as the ge, qi, yue, zhang, and handle-shaped object, in addition to new types such as gui footed vessel, plate, vessels used for mixing colors, and sculptures of phoenixes, bears, deer and horses.
After King Wu’s victory over Shang and establishment of the royal capital at Hao in today’s Chang’an, east of the Feng River in Shaanxi, the East was controlled by a government at a secondary capital, constructed at Luoyi in Luoyang. Western Zhou jade assemblages were organized on the basis of ritual rules specified in Zhou ritual texts. Although techniques of carving and engraving follow earlier Shang traditions, a new and extremely refined technique employing gauze thin lines in combination with a double outline mode of carving emerges as the preeminent characteristic of the Western Zhou style.
The Eastern Zhou Period began historically in 772 B.C. with the move east to Luoyang by King Ping. Hennan again BCEomes the center of the country’s government, economy and culture. Eastern Zhou jades are marked by an increased emphasis on liveliness, particularly as represented in the popular dragon-and tiger-shaped ornaments. Jade types inherit earlier ones, such as bi, huang, gui and zhang yet increase in number. Techniques incorporate incised line, in combination with shallow relief and gossamer thin line, which together create a richly textured surface. Jades decrease in number in Henan finds after the Eastern Zhou.
Although many Han tombs have been discovered in Henan few have jades. Most types found include bi, sword fittings, mouth plugs and pig pairs designed to be held in the hands of the deceased, jade shrouds are also occasionally discovered. Very few jades come from tombs of the Wei-Jin Period. The most unusual pieces discovered in 1956 include the brilliantly polished, translucent white jade cups unearthed from the tomb dating to the 8th year of Zhengshi Reign of Cao Wei government buried at Jianxi in Luoyang.
No jades are recorded as having been discovered archaeologically from Sui Period tombs. Occasionally jades are discovered in Tang tombs and most come from those in the vicinity of Luoyang. Less than a dozen tombs with jades have been found in post-Tang ears in Henan. With the fall of the Northern Song and move south of the royal center, the cultural center also moves south, as is reflected in burial finds. Few jades are known from Jin and Yuan period tombs. Sixteen jades were unearthed from Prince Jian of Lu’s tomb of Ming Dynasty.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 6
Anhui, located in the belly of Huandong and crossed by the Yangtze and Huai River, has a long and rich cultural history and a wealth of archeological material. During the Neolithic and later ages, cultural exchange from north to south and south to north waxed and waned, time passed, dynasties transpired, history evolved, and civilization flourished in the large riverine basins of Yangtze and Huai Rivers, leaving posterity with rich deposits of cultural relics. One of Anhui’s major cultural beauties is the large bogy of jades excavated over the last several decades, rich in subject matter and varied in form.
The earliest jades currently known from Anhui are arc-shared pendant (huang), unearthed at Shisanzi in Suixi and at Houjiazhai in Dingyuan, and date to approximately 5,000 BCE. The second earliest jades, also huang in addition to slit rings, simple in shape and types, come from Huangshanzui in Susong, and date to approximately 4000-3500 BCE. Jades of numerous types representative phase of Neolithic jade-working in Anhui. Four cultural phase define jades from this era.
Xuejiagang, the well-known culture and site located in Qianshan County, was excavated from 1978-1980. One-hundred and sixty-six jades were unearthed, including spades, rings(huan), huang, tubes, beads, tube(cong) and ornaments. Jade shapes are formalized, entirely worked and often characterized by open-work motifs, as well as sculptural forms, and these are usually pierced from one side but sometimes from both sides, with eyes holes small and refined, like an eye of a needle.
Site remains at Lingjiatan in Hanshan date to 3500-3000 BCE, equivalent to the Hongshan Culture and earlier than the Liangzhu culture. Four seasons of excavation lasting from 1987 to 2001 uncovered over 1000 individual jades of three types: ornamental, tool, and weapon ones. Some are decorated with lively imagery. The jade in quality is warm and translucent and working techniques are refined.
Remains of middle and late period Dawenkou Culture sites are known at Jinzhai in Xiaoxian. In 1986, while locals were tilling fields 134 jades were discovered. All of these jades are finely worked at a fairly high level of expertise. A few of the latter jades show Liangzhu Culture influences.
Outside of the above three cultural types are several other Neolithic culture remains, from Jianghuai and southern Anhui areas with jades of Songze and Liangzhu Cultures.
The few Shang period jades discovered in Anhui include a jade perforated axe and huang, found in 1987.
In 1955, a batch of Spring and Autumn period jades were unearthed from a tomb in Shouxian, belongs to Marquis Zhao of Cai.
During the Warring States period, Anhui was the administrative center of the state Chu. During the late Warring Stage period the Chu capital was moved to Shouchun, thereafter becoming the administrative, economic and cultural center of Chu. Techniques of jades of Warring State period comprise openwork, deep carving and shallow relief in a richly varied textural display.
In 1954, a dark green jade figurine of a human, defined through a simple intaglio hooked line, was discovered in Shouxian and reflects a Qin style jade-working.
Western Han period jades are richly represented in Anhui excavations. The animal face and cloud decorated jade sword guard, pommel and hilt excavated in 1996 from the coffin and chamber tomb at Simenkou, Maanshan are also of exquisite workmanship and carved out of highest quality white jade. The latter are quintessential Han style art.
Eastern Han period jades are also numerous in excavated contexts. Six Dynasties through Tang period jades have also been discovered. In 1986, a six Dynasties jade cicada and nose plug in Eastern Han style were unearthed from Jianshantu in Jiagou Township, Suzhou Municipality. Although few jades have been recovered from Song and Yuan period tombs and Yuan period tombs in Anhui, those that do survive are high in quality, beauty and workmanship, and serve as excellent scientific data for research on and authentication of jades from these eras. Ming Dynasty jades unearthed from Anhui have had a major impact on the entire country. Qing Dynasty jades have been unearthed from various places, including Huangshan, Wangjiang, Fanchang, Lingbi, Xiuning, Qingyang and Anqing. Subject matter includes auspicious symbols and animals, in addition to imitations of antiquities. In summary, jades unearthed from Anhui cover many dynasties and periods, are numerous in number and type, and are richly varied. The value of Anhui jades in the large scheme of China is in providing a data base of archaeologically excavated jades that may be used for research and in authentication.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 7
Jiangsu and Shanghai form a long rectangular area in the lower valley of the Yangtze River, bordered on the east by Yellow Sea, and encompassing a vast plain, with rising mountains, criss-crossing rivers, and many lakes and ponds. The ancient Great Canal that once ran through this area, linking the Yangtze, Huai and Yellow Rivers from east to west and traffic from north to south, stimulated both economy and culture, benefiting all areas, north and south, east and west, in addition to coastal and riverine areas. Jiangsu and Shanghai became the most opportune economy in southeast China and developed into one of the most thriving and comfortable of cultures and residences.
The Neolithic in Shanghai and Jiangsu areas has been known archeologically since the first two decades of the 20th century. Lake Tai Served as the cultural center of a Neolithic that encompasses three phase: early, middle and late periods, incorporating Majiabang Culture, Songze Culturre and Liangzhu Culture, respectively.
Jades representing the Songze Culture derive primarily from remains at Caoxieshan, Wuxian County, and from stratified tombs an Qingdun site remains in Haian. Types found in clued ring (huang), arc-shaped pendant (huang) and axe (yue).
The most important Liangzhu Culture jades come from Tomb No.77 at Zhaolingshan in Kunshan; Tombs No.4 and 5 at Zhanglingshan; The discovery and concentration of Liangzhu jades expand considerably upon what was known in the first two decades, enriching the treasure house of Liangzhu jades as well as adding to our knowledge about this period. It is worthy to consider the distribution, social structure and production level of the Liangxhu Culture, concentrated in the area north of Lake Tai. Major culture of the lower valley of the Yangtze and Huai Rivers (middle and north Jiangsu) with excavated Neolithic remains include Beiyingyangying, Qingliangang, Dawenkou and Liangzhu.
During the Eastern Zhou period, the State Wu and Yue battled for hegemony over the lower Yangtze River valley. States Chu, Xu, Qi, Lu and Jin also continuously fought against and amidst each other, with the result that a Wu Yue Culture stands out amidst the various Eastern Zhou cultures. Jades are a major form of the Wu Yue Culture.
In 2004, five aristocratic tombs out of seven belonging to State Yue elite were cleared at Hongshan, Wuxi in Jiangsu, and the largest tomb was 中-shaped and measured 57m long. This is the first time that high level State Yue artifacts have been discovered, and may be interpreted to reflect Yue elite burial practice and status on Wu land.
Han Dynasty jades from this area are represented by recent excavation of elite and imperial burials belonging to the Chu at Xuzhou, the Sishui at Suqian and the Mausoleum of Prince of Guangling at Yangzhou. In 1994, Western Han period Chu jades were unearthed from a mausoleum of either a king or close relation. Jades from this tomb vary in style, showing characteristics of early Western Han, not only expressed in the mode of Qin and Chu but representing transitional modes between Warring States and Western Han styles. The largest find representing the two Han periods in southern Jiangsu belong to the Guangling State Mausoleum. Jades from this mausoleum are spectacular.
Nanjing is the capital of the Six Dynasties and a rich number of culture remains have been excavated in the environs.
During the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing periods, Jiangsu and Shanghai areas quickly developed economically and culturally, having experienced trade and interaction with the Central Plains during the Six Dynasties period. Jiangsu and Shanghai succeed in becoming an area branded as the center for the educated and elite, worldly and pragmatic, the cultural center of jade production and the forecasting board of rain and shine or the symbol of cultural achievement and had the following characteristics.
Firstly, northern jades continuously enter Shanghai and Jiangsu sites.
Secondly, a large number of jades were popularly offered to Buddhist temples, which is a new use for jade during these later periods.
Thirdly, royal house and aristocrat elite used jade for friendship purposes.
Fourthly, this is the second time the area serves as the center of jade-working.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 8
Zhejiang has a long history of jade-working. From conceptual and artistic points of view this history is divisible into three periods, including the Neolithic, text the Xia and Shang through Han and Six Dynasties and finally the Sui through Tang periods. It was not until the 1970’s that the jade culture of Zhejiang was scientifically recognized, through finds primarily of the Neolithic, Spring and Autumn, and Warring States periods. Zhejiang’s Neolithnic consists of three phases: early, middle and late.
The special characteristic of the early period is the different between jade cultures located on north and south banks of the Qiantang River in Zhenjiang. On the south bank one finds jade beads, slit rings and thin and narrow huang with one end pierced for suspension. On the north bank, during the early phase of the Majiabang Culture, one finds only jade slit rings and slit ring-shaped bracelets yet during the late phase thin and narrow huang begin to appear.
The middle period of the Neolithic is represented in Zhejiang by the Songze Culture. Songze Culture jades consist primarily of ornaments that used individually to decorate the body. The most popular jade is huang, which is found throughout the lower reaches of the Yangtze River valley and in the area of the Yellow and Huai River valleys. Based on the fact that the geological source of nephrite jade is known and based on working methods, a new phase of jade-working begins during the Songze Culture period.
The late period of the Neolithic in Zhejiang belongs to the Liangzhu Culture and its successor, the Longshan. The Liangzhu culture represents the height of jade-working in Zhejiang. In terms of numbers, style, type and working techniques, Liangzhu jades far surpass their predecessor culture, Songze. Outside of the ornamental jade types decorating the body, ritual forms of jades BCEome popular. The most significant ritual and insignia jade types include cong, yue, bi, crown shapes, three-prong shapes, awl shapes, huang, bracelets, plaques and beads. Outside of the religious symbol of human deity in combination with animal face is the image of the dragon head, inherited from the Songze Culture. The material worked by Liangzhu jade crafts people is primarily tremolite nephrite. Jade-working techniques of the Liangzhu Culture greatly advance beyond those of Songze.
Based on the fact that no large-scale tombs have been found in the Lake Tai region, the last phase of the Liangzhu Culture is not well understood.
Xia, Shang and Zhou periods represent the Bronze Age of China. With the discovery of bronze and its uses, social production levels greatly advance. Accompanying this technical development, jade working reaches a new level in terms of typology and numbers. Jade works from Shang and Zhou tombs in Zhejiang are few.
The states of Wu and Yue in Zhejiang during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods gradually strengthen in military and economic power. During the 1980’s several large-scale burials were discovered and gradually excavated, creating a new opportunity to understand jades of these eras. Since no Qin or Han period large tombs have been found in Zhejiang, jades are few. After the Sui and Tang periods, the attitude toward working jade gradually changes from one in which jade was revered as ritually significant and spiritually powerful to one favoring jade primarily as a rich and beautiful material, enjoyable for its own sake. Since antiquity, Zhejiang has been an area of great human settlement. Nonetheless since the Tang period and later, burials have been largely destroyed, leaving little evidence for the use of jade.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 9
Jiangxi Province extends south from the southern band of the Middle and Lower Yangtze River valleys. Geographically, Jiangxi is low at its center and high on its four sides.
Archaeological activity came late to Jiangxi, beginning with the discoveries of Rao Huiyuan in Qingjiang County.
Sites with jades of the Late Neolithic Period date derive from Fengcheng, Xunyu, De’an, Jing’an and Shantou in Guangfengshe. Jade types are few, and usually limited to single implements, such as the tube(cong), axe(yue) and arc-shaped pendant(huang). The latter types reflect the influence of the Liangzhu Culture.
During the Shang Period Jiangxi serves as the center of the Wucheng Culture. The advanced level of this Bronze Age culture is reflected in the archeological discoveries at Wucheng site in Zhangshu and at Dayangzhou in Xin’gan.
The majority of jade types (jade is equivalent in meaning to beautiful stone) from the Dayangzhou burial include mostly tremolite nephrite and a small number consist of amlygonite, pyrophylite, turquoise, and crystal. Dayangzhou jades have two outstanding characteristics: one is that in form, décor, carving technique and style the jades reflect the Shang Culture of the Central Plain; Two, decorative features, including trapezoid, diamond, 〝 hui 回 〞 character pattern, and various angle type motifs, plus〝臣eye〞types reflect Erlitou Culture style and interest.
During the era of the two Zhou period , jiangxi culture remains are few. Most site finds are small and medium in size, and bear no comparison with earlier Wucheng or Niutoucheng Cultures. Han jades excavated in Jiangxi include a Western Han group at Yongle, Nanchang and a rich number from a Western Han Wooden burial chamber at Laofushan, including bi, pendants, and sword parts.
During the Wei-Jin, Northern and Southern Dynastic through Sui and Tang periods, there is only a low level of production with few excavated jade examples.
By the Song dynasty, society, economy, handicraft production, and culture are secure and flourishing. Jade-working during the Song is particularly rich, growing more complex and profuse in number and type of jades worked. Jade pendants are increasingly popular. Whether discussing type, technique or form, great advances are made on all levels, especially in the form of working in the round.
With the establishment of the Ming Dynasty by Zhu Yuanzhang, jades are used alongside a dress code as a means to signify status. Specific jades could be used only by the highest levels of officialdom. Based on the flourishing tradition of jade-working during the Song Dynasty, and much effort, jade production reached a new level, the richest period for jade-working in Chinese history.
Since the Song, the Taoist Mansion at Guixi has been occupied by generations of Taoist Celestial Masters, appointed by each dynastic administration. Because of this, a Taoist Celestial Master’s jade seal is identified in this area’s tomb, designed for burial, and again with both refined and rough parts.
In summary, the art of ancient jade-working in Jiangxi has a long and momentous history. Most of the tombs with jades also have ceramics and porcelains that have made Jiangxi famous through the historical ears. From Song time on, most tombs are equipped with burial epitaphs, providing dates and identities. For this reason the ancient jades represented in archaeological finds, particularly of Song period on, constitute rich source of data for future research on jade development in Jiangxi.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 10
The earliest known jades unearthed in Hubei province date to ca. 4000 BCE of the Daxi Culture of the Neolithic period. The Daxi Culture is distributed mostly along the shores surrounding Dongting Lake. Jades of this period are mostly unornamented pieces that have been simply worked by means of boring, abrading and incising.
The Shijiahe Culture represents the first peak in jade working during the Neolithic in Hubei province. Small-scale jade ornaments predominate and most are abstractions of humans and animals.
From the time the Erlitou Culture expanded south and thereafter, there were many periods within which jade-working was influenced by the precedent emanating from the Central Plains. Presently, there is no evidence for jades of Erlitou type in the Hubei area. During the Yinxu period, the northern Central Plains was the cultural center. At this time most of Hubei lacked significant centers of civilization and few jades have been discovered. This condition characterizes the Western Zhou era until the time of the southern campaign of the Zhou. The rise of feudal states at the end of the Western Zhou period stimulated the development of handicrafts which production lasted through the Warring States period. A new peak in jade-working is expressed in two groups of jades:
1. State Zeng jades which show inheritance of the Zhou cultural tradition and 2) state Chu jades with unique characteristics. State Zeng jades come from aristocratic tombs that date to the transition between Western and Eastern Zhou periods. State Chu jades in Hubei of the Spring and Autumn period currently are only known by a few finds in the area of Dangyang, at Tangjiaxiang, Yaojiagang and Zhaoxiang. The popular material talc and turquoise of the Han though Jin and Six Dynasties began to be used as inlay in jade production at this time period. Han period jades continue styles of their Chu predecessors as represented by jades unearthed from sites. The low level of jade production continues through the Three Kingdoms, Jin and Six Dynasties periods.
2. Hunan area
The earliest jades excavated in Hunan era derive from the early period of the Daxi Culture. Jades from this period are simple shapes with plain surfaces yet with a sophisticated polish. Recently there have been many stray finds of Shijiahe Culture jades in Hunan. The quality of the jade is high, with variation in the degree of the jade’s material density. Compared with finds of Erlitou period date from the Central Plains, Hunan sites are few and jades small in number. Shang and Zhou period jades derive primarily form Shimen and Ningxiang.
Many sites, mostly tombs, with jades of the Eastern Zhou period have been discovered in Hunan. Spring and Autumn period jades are concentrated along the upper valley of the Xiang River and most are associated with the Yue Culture, although a few belong to the Chu Culture. During the Warring States period the majority of Hunan belonged to the domain of Chu. Excavated sites are widespread and jade shaped numerous. Jade ornaments from these Chu tombs in Hunan reflect a sophisticated height of artistry. Types are many techniques are refined, ornament is rich, and the aesthetic is profound. The brief historical period of Qin unification is by a group of jades from burials excavated in the Changsha area of Hunan. Many Han jades have been unearthed in Hunan, with the majority form the Western Han site of Changsha. Jades from these sites may be identified according to use, with the majority insignia, others ornamental, burial or daily used jades, as characterized the Spring and Autumn through Warring States periods, although usage has greatly expanded in time and space. Han dynasty jades from Hunan reflect local characteristics, based on Chu tradition and influence. Excavated tombs with jades in Hunan from the Three Kingdoms and two Jin and Southern dynastic periods are plentiful. Jades are characterized by an Eastern Han style and new shapes, indication that the western Jin material is valuable data for the study of jade of post-Han periods in Hunan. Although jades discoveries from Hunan are rather piecemeal and sporadic due to few archaeological excavations, no doubt new discoveries will be revealed through future archaeological endeavor.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 11
The four provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and Hainan are commonly labeled the area of Hunan, yet Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macao, formed for historical or political reasons, also belonging culturally and geographically to the Hunan area. Thus, seven provinces belong in this geographical category. Although these areas are not traditionally known to be rich in natural jade and stone resources, since antiquity these materials have been mined, including tremolite and actinolite nephrites, and other valued stones.
Currently, the earliest jade ornaments are those belonging to the Middle Neolithic Period. The Late Neolithic is represented by remains at Shicia, Maba, Qujiang County, Guangdong, covering 4000 sqm and including 132 burials, excavated from 1973 to 1979 and in 1985.
Ten tall and short cong were unearthed from Shixia Culture. An openwork jade huan decorated with serrated motif and worked on its inner wall, as well as, is comparable with Liangzhu prototypes. Cong, bi and huan are rarely seen in Shixia Culture burials at the delta of Pearl River.
Lower and middle strata remains at Tanshishan, Minhou County in Fujian are a coastal Late Neolithic Culture with two phases of development. Tanshishan Culture remains are influenced by both Liangzhu and Shixia Cultures.
From 1980 to 1988, some 1000 jades were unearthed from 1,523 stone plank coffins at the site of Beinan in Taidong County, the second excavation in 1998 at Baojingwan site in Zhuhai, Guangdong uncovered 204 ornaments, including jade slit rings and huan; crystal huang; stone pendants and ear pendants, and greenstone gui. During Shang and Zhou Period, the numbers of workshops for producing jade and stone huan and slit rings increase at the mouth of Pearl River.
Many Eastern Zhou Period jade and stone artifacts come from the Nanning area in Guangxi. The slit ring type from Beinan, Taiwan has special characteristics. The large number of slit rings from the mouth Pearl River has various uses. Slit rings from Fujian are few in number. Jade and stone ge unearthed from Huanan sites, although a few may have been used, the majority appear to represent symbols of wealth and status. Warring States or Qin to Han transition period tombs are known at Beiling, Songshan in Zhaoqing and Beifushan in Luoding. The height of jade-working in Huanan occurs during the Han Dynasty. For over fifty years, Han jades have been found in large numbers in tombs in both Guangdong and Guangxi. Few are known in Fujian and none so far have been published as coming from Hong Kong, Macal, Taiwan. The richest and most representative Han jades come from the tomb of King of Stage Nanyue in Guandong. Han jades excavated from Guangxi sites are similar in technique, type and style to those from Guangdong, dating to the era of the Nanyue tomb and early phase of the Western Han. During the era of the Three States, Jin and Southern Dynasties, jade artifacts slowly disappear. Ritual and ornamental jades are not seen and beads are rare. Jades dating to the Sui-Tang through Ming-Qing Periods are also few, represented, for example by a few burials in Guangdong and Guanxi.
The traditional grouping of jade and ritual types, popular during pre-Qin through Han times change during the Tang. Ornamental types predominate and replace ritual types in popularity. Raw jade sources during the Tang-Song through Qing eras were controlled by the royal house, with major restrictions on acquisition or production by commoners. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties cremation BCEomes popular. Jades are displayed in households for their worldly beauty, and jades in burials gradually decrease in type and number. Popularly carved motifs include flowers and plants, animals, landscapes, human figurines, and sometimes themes featuring poets waxing on the profundity of jade art.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 12
Ancient jades from Yunnan, Guizhou and Tibet are most numerous in Yunnan, yet are considerably less than those discovered in the Central Plains. The stone materials worked in ancient times in these areas include nephrite, turquoise, serpentine, agate, amber and crystal, which materials distinguish these areas from others.
Neolithic jades are thus far unknown in Yunnan and Guizhou but are represented in Tibet.
During the Spring and Autumn through early Eastern Han periods, when Yuanan and Guizhou had entered the Bronze Age, jade-working flourished and numerous types and large numbers of jades appear. Through 2000, 23 Bronze Age cemeteries out of 30 in Yunnan had burials with jades.
Stone and jade worked raw materials in Yunnan are multiple in types and in this sense the ancient cultures of Yunnan may be identified as belonging to a multi-colored stone and jade-working culture. Most of the jades unearthed in Yunnan are ornamental objects worn by the Dian peoples. Types include slit rings, crescent-shaped pieces, disk-shaped bracelets, plum pit-shaped beads, ear plug-shape. The majority is made locally and expresses the aesthetic of the ancient Dian tribe.
Jades excavated from Bronze Age burials of Gizhou are comparable to those from Yunnan yet in number the jades are less. Types include slit rings, bi, bracelets, tubes, beads and huang. From Eastern Han through Wei and Jin eras, Yunnan was ruled by the “Major Families of Nanzhong”. Burial types include the large-scale earthen mound type of Han style. Earthen pit burials are rarer and cliff burials are distributed in the area of Zhaotong. Few jades are known from these tombs yet agate beads are known from the site of Heimajing in Gejiu.
Jade and stone types of Eastern Han period from Guizhou tombs are few, with only a small number of amber pendant represented. From 1978 to 1983, over 680 Buddhist artifacts representing the State Nanzhao of Dali were unearthed from the cellar and cache of three pagodas at Chongsheng Temple, Dali, Yunnan.
Ming period jades in Yunnan, although few in number, have been identified in eleven cremated burials at Batatai in Qujing and Sunjiashan in Yiliang. At the end of the Ming and beginning of the Qing Dynasty, this large-scale trade of precious stone increased in production and established Yunnan as one of the centers for precious stone production during the late Qing to the present day. A few Ming and Qing tombs have been unearthed from Guiyang in Guizhou and there jades are mostly pendants featuring popular motifs and themes of auspiciousness.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 13
The earliest jades known in Sichuan and Chongqing derive from the Daxi Culture in the eastern part of the Sichuan Basin and from other Neolithic remains in the northwest at Yingpanshan, Maoxian County. Jades from the Three Gorges and Yangtze River of Chongqing area are identical in type to those from the middle valley of the Yangtze River, and have certain features in common with the Songze, Xuejiagang and Liangzhu Cultures of the lower Yangtze River valley. In 1997, the earliest known jades from the Chengdu Plain were discovered in an earthen pit at Sanxingdui, Guanghan. These jade finds date to approximately 4000 years ago and belong to the late Baodun Culture.
Since the 1920’s jades have been found at Sanxingdui in Guanghan. The types are rich and unprecedented in variation, including scepters(zhang), dagger-axe(ge), bi, cong(tubes), knives, spear heads, chisels, adzes, axes, spades, spatulas, etc. Stylistically, Sanxingdui jades are influenced by the Central Plains traditions of Xia and Shang, although the jades also have idiosyncratic, local characteristics.
In 2001, Jinsha site was discovered and was identified as the center of the Shierqiao Culture that succeeds Sanxingdui. Jades and related artifacts found within sacrificial remains at the site are extremely rich and refined in quality, totaling over 2000 in number. Jades decrease in number and type in Sichuan Basin burials during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, although a large number of jades were recently unearthed from Warring States tombs in the Chengdu Basin. Although most large-scale tombs were plundered, the few jades discovered elsewhere show no influence of earlier Sanxingdui or Shierqiao jade types. Only a few high quality tombs have been discovered dating to the Han through Tang periods. Excavated tombs have been severely damaged and few jades survived. Eight pieces of a silver threaded jade shroud survive from tomb No.2 at Shuangbaoshan, Yongxing, Minayang. Jades excavated from the mausoleum of Wang Jian, Emperor of Early Shu of Five Dynasties, in Chengdu, include a large belt, jade tablet with inscription conferring auspicious and posthumous titles, and tablets. Discovery of jades of Song and Yuan periods are refined in quality, and detailed and sophisticated in working technique. Whatever the subject, all interpretations are characterized by a freshness and spontaneity.
Although many Ming burials belonging to royalty and aristocrats have been excavated in Sichuan, most have been seriously plundered and few jade examples remain.
Qing period jades include the 100 examples discovered in a storage pit of late Qing Dynasty in the center of Chengdu at the Sichuan Hotel. Most are daily used jades. Carving is elegant and polished surfaces brilliant and shiny. All show remains of use.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 14
The earliest jades known in Shaanxi, small in number and type, and simple in shape and working technique, belong to the Laoguantai Culture. The distribution of jades belonging to the Yangshao Culture currently ia primarily in Guanzhong and southern Shaanxi. The largest number of jades was discovered at the site of Longgangsi, Nanzheng. Representative types include the jade knife with drilled holes and middle spine, and a turquoise arc-shaped pendant(huang) taking the shape of the〝凹〞graph. In addition the The-shaped black jade hairpin is another widely distributed type associated with the Yangshao Culture.
Longshan period jades are primarily distributed in northern Shaanxi, as represented by Shimao and Xinhua in Shenmu, and Lushanmao in Yan’an, and secondarily are distributed in the Guanzhong area. The most popular jade type of this era are the jade yazhang(zhang scepter with flaking edge serrations) and large knife.
Various prehistoric cultural jades continue to appear in later dated tombs and sites in Shaanxi.
The few Shang jades that have been discovered in Shaanxi are mostly concentrated in the eastern suburbs of Xi’an at Laoniupo and the Fengji tomb at Liujia, Fufeng.
Approximately 3,000 jades are known to have been unearthed from Western Zhou tombs in Shaanxi, and these come primarily from three areas, including Zhouyuan between Fufeng and Qishan, State Yu cemetery at Baoji Municipality, and Fenghao area in Chang’an. The number and quality of jades, and size of the tomb directly reflect the status of the deceased during Western Zhou times. Types are fairly standardized, in consisting of four categories: ritual, ornamental, utilitarian and burial jades. The majority of Western Zhou jades are carved into flat pieces that emphasize a cut-out type of profile, and three-dimensional figurines are rarely seen.
Approximately 1,500 jades have been unearthed from Spring and Autumn and Warring States tombs in Shaanxi. In Shaanxi, Spring and Autumn period jades are primarily Qin in style yet a sizeable number are also Chu in style, as represented, for example, by the jade disk(bi), huang and belt buckle from Tomb No.2 at Yimen. Qin style jades during the Warring States period are represented by two types, which are the hallmark of Qin style throughout the Warring States period.
Over 300 jades of Han period have been excavated in Shaanxi, with the most important coming from the surroundings of Xi’an and from the Western Han Imperial Mausoleum in Yuanshang, Xianyang. The highest ranking jade of Han period yet discovered is the “ The Imperial Seal of the Empress” unearthed in the vicinity of the Changing Mausoleum. On the basis of the script style and location of the discovery, it is likely that this jade seal was used by the early Han Empress Lu.
One of the more prominent forms of Han jades, in terms of number in Shaanxi is the jade bi, with a multitude of decorative types. During the short period of Northern Zhou and Sui, when the capital was located at Chang’an, Shaanxi, although jade production and use was at low ebb, a small quantity of expertly worked jades has been discovered.
The great and powerful empire of the Tang, economically flourishing and internationally reknown, was stimulus for recovering the masterful art of jade-working. Over a half a century, excavations have uncovered over 100 groups of characteristic and special Tang jades from Chang’an and its environs. There are only a few noteworthy jade discoveries known from the Song and Jin periods in Shaanxi, such as the natural and descriptive human figurine sculpted in the round from Xujiazhai, Weiyangqu, Xi’an.
The most significant jades in Shaanxi of Yuan period include various distinctive pieces, one of which is a round-shaped pendant featuring an openwork décor of plum blossoms, made out of dense jade, with an outer edge decorated with a circular ring of bamboo nodules and openwork bamboo leaves and plum flowers.
The few examples of Ming and Qing jades unearthed from Shaanxi are primarily jade belts.
The Complete Collection of Jades Unearthed in China Vol. 15
Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia, located in the west part of China, have similar terrain and climate. Although the eastern part of Gansu and Ningxia are usually identified with the middle valley of the Yellow River, reflexively from a geographical point of view Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia are viewed as a single cultural entity belonging to the upper reaches of the Yellow River and collectively are called areas of the upper Yellow River valley.
Xinjiang occupies the northwestern most part of China, and is an area with one of the most advanced jade types. Although jades have only belatedly been unearthed in Xinjiang, the area is the single most important source for the finest and purest quality jade, known as Hetian yu, a tremolite nephrite of translucent white.
1. Areas of Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia
The earliest jades(jade is equivalent in meaning to beautiful stone) in this area of northwest China are turquoise and marble pendants, unearthed at the Yangshao Culture site of Dadiwan in Qin’an, Gansu.
With the Qijia Culture, jade-working enters a new stage of development. Jade works of art representing this phase are large, rich in quality and amazing. Stone and jade artifacts, accompanying burials from the site of Huangniangniangtai in Wuwei, Gansu not only include a large amount of stone worked types but also other materials, such as marble, with only a few ruanyu or Nephrite jade pieces. As if all of a sudden of interest to scholars is that Qijia Culture remains have a large number of important ritual jade types that show major influences from eastern cultures. The most popular Qijia Culture jade type is the bi (includes both bi and huang types) of many forms. The cong gradually disappears, and although in number they are substantial they are not in comparison with the bi. No flourishing jade culture on par with that of Qijia is known after the Qijia Culture, during the Shang and Zhou eras. Occasional jade finds are known, as represented by jade artifacts from the Siba Culture. One of the highlights of Zhou and Qin Period sites in Gansu, and belongs to several prehistoric cultures related with Zhou and Qin.
A large number of Han through Wei Jin period tombs yet with few jades have been discovered in the upper reaches of the Yellow River valley in Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia.
Representative of the Sui and Tang eras are jades from several Tang tombs in the southern suburbs of Guyuan in Ningxia. Guyan is an important center along the Silk Road. The trade route of jade is the same as the Silk Road, but major changes are witnessed in new types and multiple guises of jades during these later periods.
2. Area of Xinjian
Jades from Xinjian in large part do not predate 3000 years ago. Ornamental jade beads are probably the earliest type known, and may date is not less from this period.
Xinjiang jades are primarily Hetian jade yet despite this plentiful source, this area did not serve as the origin of a jade culture. Rather jade cultures of the eastern part of the Yellow River valley influenced this area’s production. Xinjiang jades from prehistoric and Bronze Age Culture sites consist primarily of jade tools or small-scale ornaments. Preliminary examination shows the workmanship is not high in quality nor is the jade of particularly high quality, as if to suggest that the value of Hetian jade had not been realized. No jade culture or center producing ritual jade types appear presented in Xinjiang.
Xinjiang overlaps with Central Asia along China’s border. From archeological discovery it appears that Xinjiang entered the Neolithic rather belatedly and with the appearance of a mixed character.
The Hetian jade mined in the mountain veins of Kunlun Mountains in Xinjiang in large part begin to appear transmitted piecemeal to certain areas along the upper river valley of the Yellow River and even as far as the Yangtz and Han River valley in 6000-5000 BCE.
Hetian jade began to be transported to Shang and Zhou Cultures in the Central Plains 3000 years ago since jades from tombs are identifiable as this type of material.
The few jades that are known from periods after about 3000 years ago are represented by site and tomb remains.
- 红山玉器: 赤峰文物精华丛书
Hongshan Yuqi: Chifeng Wenwu Jinghua Congshu
Hongshan Jade: Essence of Chifeng Historical Relics Series
于建设
Yu, Jianshe
204 pp., fully illustrated in color, text in Chinese with English captions, paper, map, Chifeng, 2005.
This is an important catalog on Chinese Jade from the Hongshan Culture in Chifeng County.
- 玉器时代
The Jade Age
新石器晚期至夏代的中国北方玉器
Jades from Northern China between the Neolithic Age and the Xia Dynasty
艾丹
Ai, Dan
31 pp., fully illustrated in color, text in Chinese and English, paper, Beijing, 2006.
In this volume, avid jade collector and writer, Ai Dan, puts together his thoughts and expertise to bring us a fine collection of ancient Chinese jades with insightful commentary. With 48 examples from the Late Neolithic, Xia Dynasty and Hongshan Cultures, ranging from discs to congs (琮) to yues (钺), these examples represent the essence of ancient jades. Each piece is featured with an oversized image that displays its true clarity and color. The items in this compilation were excavated from sites in modern day Gansu, Shaanxi, Henan, and Shandong provinces as well as the area identified as the home to Hongshan Culture.
- 牛和梁红山文化遗址与玉器精粹
Niuheliang Hongshan Wenhua Weizhi Yu Yuqi Jingcui
Hongshan Culture and Hongshan Jade at Niuheliang
宁省考古研究所
Liaoning Province Archaeological Research Team
102 pp., 101 color illustrations, text in Chinese, Beijing, 1997.
A detailed investigation of the famous Hongshan site at Niuheliang, west part of the Liaoning province. Illustrated here are jade carvings, earthernwares, photographs of the site, and how the objects were found in the graves. Following the essays, each object and photograph is amply described. Text in Chinese.
- 红山文化玉器新品新鉴
Hongshan wenhua yuqi xinpin xinjian
The Discovery of New Type of Hongshan Culture Jade Carvings
孙守道 & 刘淑娟
Sun, Shoudao & Liu, Shujuan
331 pp., 325 color plates, text in Chinese and English, cloth, Changchun, 2007.
This collection illustrates in full color 325 jade carvings from the Hongshan culture (红山文化) of the Neolithic period in China. The main emphasis is on jades and types of jades discovered relatively recently, as well as new interpretations of Hongshan jades. A thorough introductory essay in both Chinese and English discusses problems of authentication, recent discoveries and insights, and the context of the jades within Hongshan culture. Chapter introductions, piece titles, and piece dimensions are also given in Chinese and English; other details regarding each work are in Chinese only. The jades pictured in this volume are divided into the following categories:
Jade figures and jade facial sculptures
Jade reproductive organs
Jade dragons
Jade animals
Jade curling-cloud shaped ornaments
Jade hook-shaped ornaments
Jade discs (bi)
Jade cong
Jade rings
Jade beads and pendants
Jade weapons and tools
Jade seals
Jade slit rings
Other shapes
- 红山石器
Hongshan shiqi
Hongshan Stoneware
王冬力
Wang, Dongli
198 pp., 2 views of 185 select items, Pools reference price list, text in Chinese and English, illustrated boards, Beijing, 2007.
This volume features stonewares dating to the Neolithic Hongshan culture from the private collection of Wang Dongli. With the help of Hongshan expert Xu Qiang, the author presents a variety of weapons and tools as well as ornamental and ritualistic relics preserved from this ancient culture. Each color plate includes bilingual caption (English and Chinese) and bilingual description.
- 红山文化古玉鉴定
Hongshan wenhua guyu jianding
[Appraising Ancient Jades of the Hongshan Culture]
徐强
Xu, Qiang
306 pp., 495 color plates, text Chinese and English, illustrated boards, Beijing, 2007.
In this publication, author and jade expert Xu Qiang, points out the keys to successfully identifying and authenticating jade from the Hongshan period. With full bilingual (English and Chinese) text, Xu examines from an archaeological, anthropological, geological and technological point of view, thus providing the reader with the essential knowledge to further enrich his/her understanding of these precious Chinese relics.
- 红山文化古玉精华: 听雨堂收藏
Hongshan Wenhua Guyu Jinghua: Tianyutang Shoucang
Hongshan Antiquated Jade: Tingyutang Treasures
徐强
Xu, Qiang
375 pp., numerous color illustrations, text in Chinese, paper, illustrated boards, Beijing, 2004.
Hongshan Jade from Tingyutang Collections.
- Hansford, S. Howard
Chinese Carved Jades
London, Lund Humphries for The Arts Council Of Great Britain, 1957
4to. pp. xiii, 133. colour frontis. & 203 illus. on 40 double-sided plates. biblio. index
- Hansford, S. Howard
Chinese Jade Carving
London, Lund Humphries & Co. Ltd. 1950
145 pages. 32 b/w pages of illustrations, 12 figures, map, bibliography and index. 7.5" x 10"
- Chinese Jades of the Hongshan Culture
ca. 4700 - 2920 BCE
The Hongshan culture is a relatively new discovery in the field of Chinese archaeology,
and there is still much research to be done. This catalogue will introduce many people to this
important early Chinese culture. We gratefully acknowledge Professor Zhou Nanquan, the former
Senior Jade Researcher at the Palace Museum in Beijing, for his help in curating the collection
for the exhibition as well as contributing the essay for the catalogue.
THROCKMORTON FINE ART, New York, 2005
Exhibition Catalogue, March 17 - April 16, 2005
- Yuchikusaizo Kogyokufu
[The Early Chinese Jades in the Collection of the Late Riichi Uyeno]
Kosaku, Hamada
37 pp. plus 28 individual color plates illustrating 89
of objects, text in Japanese with table of contents in English,
Japanese binding and clasp case, Tokyo, 1925.
This collection contains largely fine neolithic jade blades and bi
discs, and some carved figures.
- Cleveland Museum Hongshan Humanoid with Bovine Head (Severence Milikin coll.), published in:
1944 "Schamenendarstellungen," Asia Major 1, 1 (1944): 62
1954 Sherman E. Lee, "More Early Chinese Jades," The Bulletin of The Cleveland Museum of Art 41, 10 (December, 1954): 215-217
1959 Eleanor V. Erdberg Consten, Dal Alte China (Stuttgart, Gustav Kilpper, 1959), 78, 244, pl. 43
1962 Chinese Jade (Philadelphia, Univeristy of Pennsylvania, 1962), no. 150
1963 Alfred Salmony, Chinese Jade Through the Wei Dynasty (New York, Ronald Press, 1963), 218-219, 227, pl. 35:4
1966 Cheng Te-k'un, "Some Standing Jade Figurines of the Shang-Chou Period," Artibus Asiae 28, 1 (1966): 48-49, fig. 10
1968 S. Howard Hansford, Chinese Carved Jades (London, Faber and Faber, 1968), 83-85, pl. 56
1969 Horizon Magazine, ed., The Arts of China, (New York, American Heritage Publishing Co., Ltd. 1969), 69
1989 Jan Wirgin, ed., The Ernest Erickson Collection in Swedish Museums (Stockholm, The Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 1989), 10-11
1990 Angus Forsyth, "Five Chinese Jade Figures: Study of the Development of Sculptural Form in Hongshan Neolithic Jade Working," Orientations 21, 5 (1990): 60, figs. 8-8b
1994 J. Keith Wilson, "New Objects/New Insights: Cleveland's Recent Chinese Acquisitions," The Bulletin of The Cleveland Museum of Art 81, 8 (October, 1994): 275-76, fig. 3
Michael R. Cunningham, Stanislaw J. Czuma, Anne E. Wardwell, J. Keith Wilson, Masterworks of Asian Art (Cleveland, OH: The Cleveland Museum of Art and Thames and Hudson, 1998), pp. 22-3, repr.
by Diasai Levine
|
|
|
|
| |
